The principle of indifference

In several previous posts I have applied the principle of indifference, albeit I did not call it by that name.

• In the post The eerie silence I wrote this:

The probability of the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence is 50%. As we know nothing, this is equivalent to throwing a coin, and if it comes up heads, we say that we are alone; if tails, that we have company.

• In the post Relativism in science? I said this:

If we have no reason to assume that a theory is true or false, its probability should be close to 0.5... Theories about which we have no information, for or against, with a probability between 0.4 and 0.6. I will cite the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence, the possibility of building strong artificial intelligence, or the various theories of the multiverse.

Relativism in science?

Karl Popper

As I have said in other posts, quoting Popper, a scientific theory can never be considered utterly confirmed. In other words, we can never be completely sure that it is true. But some people try to rely on this (and on Kant’s philosophy) to reach the conclusion that we cannot know anything about reality, that scientific knowledge is relative, and that science is no different from other human activities, such as arts or fashion, whose productions cannot be said to be true or false.

Against this position, in an article published in 1990 in defense of realism, Martin Gardner wrote the following paragraph, which in my opinion hits the center of the bull’s eye:

Fads and fallacies in the name of science

Martin Gardner

As I pointed out in the previous post, Martin Gardner published in 1952 a book with the same title as this one. My edition, dated in 1957, contains an updating appendix and a new chapter, making a total of 26 chapters. Each chapter refers to one or more cases of pseudoscience. The book bears the following subtitle:

A study in human gullibility

I am sure that more than one of my readers will be outraged by at least one of Gardner’s selected pseudosciences, because they will not be considered pseudoscience. Like any human activity, the critique of pseudosciences is also debatable. I am not going to give my opinion. I will just summarize Gardner’s pseudosciences, although not all of them, for a few are no longer interesting. Nor will I mention those that have appeared after the publication of Gardner’s book, although I will dedicate other posts to some of these.

Science or pseudoscience?

Martin Gardner

The word pseudoscience is defined as follows in the Cambridge Dictionary:

a system of thought or a theory that is not formed in a scientific way

As for Wikipedia, it is defined like this:

statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be both scientific and factual but are incompatible with the scientific method

We can deduce that pseudoscience is a theory or discipline presented as scientific, but not really scientific. The distinction between science and pseudoscience is important, because there are many pseudosciences, almost more than sciences, although sometimes it is difficult to distinguish them, because throughout history, ideas about what is scientific and what is not, have changed.

Cellular automata and the game of life

John Horton Conway

On April 11, the mathematician John Horton Conway, age 82, died of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Conway became famous during the 1970s for inventing a very special cellular automaton, the Game of Life, which turned out to possess peculiar properties.

Contrary to what is done with most scientific discoveries, Conway did not publish his invention of the Game of Life in a typical scientific journal. It was first published in the Mathematical Games section of the Scientific American magazine, written by Martin Gardner. The article, titled The Fantastic Combinations of John Conway's New Solitaire Game 'Life', appeared in the October 1970 issue.

Are the digits of Pi real?

Martin Gardner

In an article published in Discover magazine in 1985, Martin Gardner wrote this:

As it happens, the thousandth decimal of pi is 9... The question: Was [this assertion] true before the 1949 calculation? To those of the realist school, the sentence expresses a timeless truth whether anyone knows it or not... [Others] prefer to think of mathematical objects as having no reality independent of the human mind.

This problem is quite old, as we have been discussing it for over two thousand years. The question about whether mathematical objects really exist or are a pure creation of our mind is a particular case of another problem, much more general, that debates whether ideas and concepts (like the dog species) really exist, or just this dog and that dog exist. This is the problem of universals, famous in the Middle Ages, which has not yet been solved to everyone’s satisfaction. In fact, at present, this debate is more virulent than ever.

The hollow Earth in pseudoscience and science

Cyrus Reed Teed (Koresh)

1870 saw the first appearance of a curious variant of the hollow Earth theory outside the literary field. The American Cyrus Read Teed proclaimed his belief that the Earth is hollow, but (here is the difference with previous theories) we live inside. Although the sea surface has been known for over two thousand years to be convex, and in spite of the arguments that led the Greek philosophers to assign the Earth a spherical shape, with ourselves on its outer surface, Teed was convinced that the Earth is really concave. The apparently infinite outer space would be a hollow bubble inside a universe made of rock. Teed changed his name to Koresh and founded a religion (Koreshanity) which reached several thousand followers, although they were scattered after his death in 1908.

Soon after, a German aviator named Bender, a prisoner in France during the First World War, read Teed publications and believed them. Bender developed these theories and asserted that the universe is an infinite mass of rock surrounding a bubble 13,000 kilometers in diameter, in whose inner surface we live. The atmosphere, 60 kilometers thick, thins up to the central vacuum, where three bodies move: the sun, the moon and the ghost universe, a ball of gas with shining points of light: the stars. When the ghost universe passes before the sun, it causes the alternation of day and night in the various regions of the inner surface of the Earth.